be given therapeutically and the amounts that  produce  death. 6. Morphine causes considerable mental con- fusion and interferes with the proper ex- ercise  of  judgment  and  therefore  should not  be  given  to  ambulatory  patients. 7.   Morphine   is   a   dangerously   habituating drug. It should not be given trivially and must  be  rigidly  accounted  for.  Under  no circumstances  should  the  corpsman  ad- minister  morphine  except  in  an  emergency. Morphine administration to patients in shock or  with  extensive  burns  should  be  rigidly  con- trolled.  Morphine  administration  by  subcutaneous or intramuscular routes may not be absorbed into the  bloodstream  because  of  the  reduced  peripheral circulation, and pain may persist. When this hap- pens, the uninformed often give additional doses, hoping  to  bring  about  relief.  Then  when  resuscita- tion  occurs  and  the  peripheral  circulation  im- proves,  the  stored  quantities  of  morphine  are released into the system, and an extremely serious condition   (morphine   poisoning)   ensues.   When other pain-relieving drugs are not available, and the patient in shock or with burns is in severe pain, 16 mg of morphine may be given intramuscularly (followed  by  massage  of  the  injection  site),  but the  temptation  to  give  more  must  be  resisted. Doses should not be repeated more than twice and then  at  least  4  hours  apart,  unless  otherwise ordered  by  a  medical  officer. If  the  pain  from  the  wound  is  agonizingly severe, morphine may be given if examination of the patient reveals no: 1.  Head  injury. 2.  Chest  injury,  including  sucking  and  non- sucking  wounds. 3. Wounds of the throat, nasal passages, oral cavity,  or  jaws  wherein  blood  might obstruct  the  airway. 4.  Massive  hemorrhage. 5.   Respiratory   impairment,   including chemical  burns  of  the  respiratory  tract. Any casualty having fewer than 16 respira- tions  per  minute  should  not  be  given morphine. 6.  Evidence  of  severe  or  deepening  shock. 7.  Loss  of  consciousness. Overdose is an ever-present danger. For this reason,  every  casualty  who  has  received  morphine should be plainly identified. Write the letter “M” and  the  hour  of  injection  on  the  patient’s forehead, e.g., M0830. A skin pencil, colored an- tiseptic, or ink maybe used for this purpose. The empty  morphine  syrette  or  tubex  should  be  at- tached to the shirt collar or other conspicuous area of the clothing by a safety pin or other means to alert  others  that  the  drug  has  been  administered. INJURIES TO BONES, JOINTS, AND  MUSCLES Many  kinds  of  accidents  cause  injuries  to bones,  joints,  or  muscles.  In  giving  first  aid  to an injured person, you must always look for signs of fractures (broken bones), dislocations, sprains, strains,  and  contusions. An  essential  part  of  the  first  aid  treatment  for fractures  consists  of  immobilizing  the  injured  part with splints so that the sharp ends of broken bones will not move around and cause further damage to nerves, blood vessels, or vital organs. Splints are  also  used  to  immobilize  severely  injured  joints or muscles and to prevent the enlargement of ex- tensive wounds. You must have a general under- standing of the use of splints before going on to learn the detailed first aid treatment for injuries to  bones,  joints,  and  muscles. USE OF SPLINTS In  an  emergency,  almost  any  firm  object  or material will serve as a splint. Thus, umbrellas, canes,  rifles,  tent  pegs,  sticks,  oars,  wire  mesh, boards,   corrugated   cardboard,   and   folded newspapers  can  be  used  as  splints.  A  fractured leg  may  sometimes  be  splinted  by  fastening  it securely  to  the  uninjured  leg.  Whenever  available, use manufactured spirits such as the pneumatic splints or the traction splints. Splints,  whether  manufactured  or  improvised, must fulfill certain requirements. They should be lightweight, strong, fairly rigid, and long enough to reach past the joints above and below the frac- ture.  They  should  be  wide  enough  so  that  the bandages used to hold them in place will not pinch the injured part. Splints must be well padded on the sides touching the body; if they are not prop- erly padded, they will not fit well and will not ade- quately immobilize the injured part. If you have to  improvise  the  padding  for  a  splint,  you  may use  clothing,  bandages,  cotton,  blankets,  or  any other  soft  material.  If  the  victim  is  wearing  heavy clothes,  you  may  be  able  to  apply  the  splint  on the outside, allowing the clothing to serve as at least part of the required padding. Fasten splints in   place   with   bandages,   strips   of   adhesive 4-51