tests  and  operating  practices  for  EMI  reduction. MIL-STD-1310   entitled   Shipboard   Bonding, Grounding,  and  Other  Techniques  for  Electromagnetic Compatibility and Safety, is a military standard for the proper construction of bonding straps and grounding, cables.   It   is   the   reference   for   all   shipboard electromagnetic capability (EMC) installations. It contains drawings that depict the proper shape of and lists materials required to construct bonding straps and grounding  leads  for  shipboard  electrical/electronics installation. The Naval Shore Electronics Criteria handbook, Electromagnetic  Radiation  Hazards,  NAVSEA  OP 3565 Volumes 1 and 2, (parts 1 and 2) (NAVELEX 0967-LP-624-6010)  has information on the reduction of EMI at shorebased facilities. All facets of grounding, shielding,  and  equipment  bonding  are  contained  in  this highly informative handbook. The Handbook  of  Shipboard  Electromagnetic Shielding  Practices,  NAVSEA   S9407-AB-HBK-010, provides specifications for cable spacing/shielding requirements and installation procedures that will minimize the effects of electromagnetic interference (EMI) on electronic equipment installed in naval vessels. It is intended for use by ship designers, planning  engineers,  personnel  engaged  in  the installation of electronic equipment, overhaul and repair   shipyards,   tenders,   and   other   repair   and installation activities. SUMMARY—FUNDAMENTALS AND OPERATIONS OF COMPUTERS This  chapter  has  introduced  you  to  computer functions, types of computers (mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers), operational uses, modes of operation, capabilities and limitations, and   operational   requirements.   The   following information  summarizes  important  points  you  should have  learned: COMPUTER  FUNCTIONS—  Computers  gather, process, store, disseminate, and display data. Data may be  gathered  manually  or  automatically  or  by  a combination of both. Once processed, it can be stored either internally in memory banks or externally on disk or tape. Data maybe disseminated and stored, or it may be sent to a display device. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS—  Mainframe computers are large computers. Those used aboard Navy vessels are designed for ruggedness and are general-purpose,   digital   data   computers   with 1-16 multiprocessing  capability.  They  usually  have  operator and remote consoles and a maintenance panel/display control unit (DCU). They have specific power and cooling   requirements. MINICOMPUTERS—  Minicomputers  are  mid- range  computers. They  are  capable  of  stand-alone (self-contained)  operation,  or  they  maybe  an  embedded processor in a system or other type of digital device. They  usually  have  a  control  and  maintenance  panel (CMP)  or  computer  control  panel.  Like  the  mainframe, they have a rugged frame when used aboard ship, and they have specific power and cooling requirements. MICROCOMPUTERS—  Microcomputers  (per- sonal  computers)  are  small,  lightweight  computers. Their central processing unit is contained on a single integrated chip (IC) and the entire computer system is contained on a handful of printed circuit boards in a small compact frame or cabinet. FUNCTIONAL   OPERATION   OF   COM- PUTERS— Computers exchange data with other computers, peripherals, and subsystems through a coordinated   series   of   interrupts,   requests,   and acknowledges.  The  signal  flow  is  coordinated  by  the operational program. INTERFACING—   Interfacing  between  the computer   and   other   systems,   subsystems,   and equipment includes cabling and associated connectors. Methods of interfacing include both parallel and serial data  transfers. OPERATIONAL  USES—  Operational  uses  of computers   include   tactical   and   Naval   Tactical Command Support Systems. COMPUTER   SYSTEM   CONFIGURA- TIONS—   Each  system  must  be  configured  for operation   and   maintenance.   The   hardware   and software must be compatible and must be set up to work together. MODES OF OPERATION— Computer systems may be operated in online, offline, and battle short modes. Maintenance may be performed online if there is enough memory; otherwise it will be performed offline. Battle short mode is used when it is necessary to  run  the  system  continuously  even  though  an overtemperature condition exists. OPERATIONAL   SYSTEM   REQUIRE- MENTS—  The  operational  capabilities  and  limitations can  be  controlled  at  the  equipment,  or  through switchboards, control panels, or commands to the software. Effective operation depends on adherence to