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Figure 1-7.—Radiation balance in the atmosphere.
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Aerographers Mate, Module 05-Basic Meteorology
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TEMPERATURE SCALES

REVIEW QUESTIONS Q1-4. What are sunspots? Q1-5. In  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  approximately what    date    will    the    greatest    amount    of incoming solar radiation be received? Q1-6. What percent of the earth's insolation do land and water absorb? Q1-7.What  is  the  effect  on  a  polar  air  column  in relation to a column of air over the equator? PRESSURE LEARNING   OBJECTIVE:   Describe   how pressure  is  measured  and  determine  how  the atmosphere is affected by pressure. DEFINITION AND FORMULA Pressure  is  the  force  per  unit  area.  Atmospheric pressure   is   the   force   per   unit   area   exerted   by   the atmosphere  in  any  part  of  the  atmospheric  envelope. Therefore,  the  greater  the  force  exerted  by  the  air  for any given area, the greater the pressure. Although the pressure varies on a horizontal plane from day to day, the  greatest  pressure  variations  are  with  changes  in altitude. Nevertheless, horizontal variations of pressure are  ultimately  important  in  meteorology  because  the variations affect weather conditions. Pressure is one of the most important parameters in meteorology.  Knowledge of the distribution of air and the resultant variations in air pressure over the earth is vital   in   understanding   Earth’s   fascinating   weather patterns. Pressure is force, and force is related to acceleration  and  mass  by  Newton’s  second  law.  This law   states   that   acceleration   of   a   body   is   directly proportional   to   the   force   exerted   on   the   body   and inversely proportional to the mass of that body. It may be expressed as a F m or  F ma = = “A”  is  the  acceleration,  “F”  is  the  force  exerted,  and "in" is the mass of the body. This is probably the most important equation in the mechanics of physics dealing with force and motion. NOTE: Be sure to use units of mass and not units of weight when applying this equation. STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT Atmospheric   pressure   is   normally   measured   in meteorology   by   the   use   of   a   mercurial   or   aneroid barometer.   Pressure   is   measured   in   many   different units.  One  atmosphere  of  pressure  is  29.92  inches  of mercury  or  1,013.25  millibars.  These  measurements are made under established standard conditions. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE The  establishment  of  a  standard  atmosphere  was necessary  to  give  scientists  a  yardstick  to  measure  or compare actual pressure with a known standard. In the International Civil Aeronautical Organization (ICAO), the  standard  atmosphere  assumes  a  mean  sea  level temperature  of  59°F  or  15°C  and  a  standard  sea  level pressure   of   1,013.25   millibars   or   29.92   inches   of mercury. It also has a temperature lapse rate (decrease) of 3.6°F per 1000 feet or 0.65°C per 100 meters up to 11 kilometers and a tropopause and stratosphere temperature of -56.5°C or -69.7°F. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION Pressure at any point in a column of water, mercury, or  any  fluid,  depends  upon  the  weight  of  the  column above  that  point.  Air  pressure  at  any  given  altitude within the atmosphere is determined by the weight of the atmosphere pressing down from above. Therefore, the pressure decreases with altitude because the weight of the atmosphere decreases. It has been found that the pressure decreases by half for each 18,000-foot (5,400-meter) increase in altitude. Thus,   at   5,400   meters   one   can   expect   an   average pressure  of  about  500  millibars  and  at  36,000  feet (10,800  meters)  a  pressure  of  only  250  millibars,  etc. Therefore,   it   may   be   concluded   that   atmospheric pressures  are  greatest  at  lower  elevations  because  the total  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is  greatest  at  these points. There is a change of pressure whenever either the mass  of  the  atmosphere  or  the  accelerations  of  the molecules within the atmosphere are changed. Although altitude exerts the dominant control, temperature  and  moisture  alter  pressure  at  any  given altitude—especially  near  Earth’s  surface  where  heat and    humidity,    are    most    abundant.    The    pressure variations  produced  by  heat  and  humidity  with  heat being  the  dominant  force  are  responsible  for  Earth’s winds  through  the  flow  of  atmospheric  mass  from  an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. 1-12

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