· Cost-effectiveness–Controls  consume  money and man-hours. Unless a control system will save more than it costs to implement, look elsewhere for a solution. As  you  apply  these  principles  of  control,  you  must consider the time frame in which your controls operate. Controls operate in three modes in relation to time: feedforward,  concurrent,  and  feedback. · Feedforward  control–This  control,  the  most dynamic of the three, is designed to discover problems before they occur. Drawbacks to feedforward control are the  heavy  investment  of  time  and  the  detailed management required to make this system work. A maintenance manager who adjusts leave and liberty schedules  to  meet  anticipated  workloads  is  practicing feedforward  control. · Concurrent control–This type of control effects corrections as they are needed. It does not predict them. When  the  process  under  control  deviates  from acceptable  limits,  concurrent  control  steps  in  and corrects problems as they occur. When you walk, you constantly monitor your stride and balance to avoid falling. This is concurrent control. · Feedback  control–Feedback  control  fixes  a problem  “after  the  fact.”  For  instance,  a  defense contractor who discovers during final testing that a component  has  a  defective  design  must  scrap  the production run and fix the problem. The contractor may lose money on that one production run, but that is better than  a  congressional  investigation  for  sending  defective parts to the fleet. There are as many ways of attaining control as there are  managers! Even standard control methods are personalized  by  individual  managers  to  suit  personal inclinations  and  individual  situations. METHODS OF CONTROL Control   techniques   or   methods   are   generally described  as  either  quantitative  or  nonquantitative. Quantitative  Methods Quantitative  methods  use  data  and  various quantitative tools to monitor and control production output.  Two  common  quantitative  tools  are  budgets  and audits. By far the most widely recognized quantitative tool is the chart. Charts used as control tools normally contrast time and performance. The visual impact of a chart often provides the quickest method of relating data. A difference in numbers is much more noticeable when  displayed  graphically.  Most  charts  are  versions  of either the Gantt chart or the Program Evaluation and Review  Technique  (PERT). BUDGETS. –By far the best known control device is  the  budget.  Budgets  and  control  are,  in  fact, synonymous. An organization’s budget is an expression in  financial  terms  of  a  plan  for  meeting  the organization’s goals for a specific period. A budget is an instrument of planning, management, and control. We use  budgets  in  two  ways.  First,  we  use  them  as established  facts  that  must  be  factored  into  our operational  planning.  Second,  we  use  them  to  prepare narrative descriptions and financial information that our chain  of  command  uses  in  its  annual  request  and management of its funds. At present, the Department of the Navy (DON) uses two major budget systems. These are  zero-based  budgeting  (ZBB)  and  the  planning, programming, and budgeting system (PPBS). AUDITS.    –Internal    auditing    provides    an independent  review  and  appraisal  of  accounting, financial,  and  other  nontactical  operations.  As  a management tool, the audit measures and evaluates the effectiveness of management controls. The Naval Audit Service provides an independent audit of programs, activities, systems, and procedures. It also provides an independent  audit  of  other  operations  involving  the  use of  funds  and  resources  and  the  accomplishment  of management goals. Budgets and audits are addressed in detail  in   Financial   Management   in   the   Navy, NAVEDTRA   10792-E. Nonquantitative  Methods Nonquantitative  methods  refer  to  total  or  overall control  of  performance  rather  than  specific  processes. These  methods  use  tools  such  as  inspections,  reports, direct supervision, and performance evaluation/counseling  to  accomplish  goals. TOTAL  QUALITY  LEADERSHIP The DON has recently adopted the concept of Total Quality Leadership (TQL) as the means of meeting DON  needs  into  the  21st  century.  Executive  Order 12637,   signed   April   27,   1988,   establishes   the Productivity  Improvement  Program  for  the  federal government.  TQL  IS  THE  NAVY’S  ANSWER  TO THIS  ORDER. The concept behind TQL revolves around a change from leadership by results to leadership by process (quality)  improvement.  The  manager’s  task  is  to continually improve each and every process in his or her 4-15