their  service  over  forces  under  unified  or  specified commands. Therefore, the CNO’s function in opera- tional matters for unified or specified commands is as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Joint Chiefs of Staff provides direction and guidance to the  commanders  of  unified  and  specified  commands. THE PRESIDENT (COMMANDER  IN  CHIEF) The President’s power as the Commander in Chief  of  the  Armed  Forces  is  extensive.  That power  increases  in  war  or  any  other  national emergency.  For  example,  the  President  may declare  an  emergency  and  call  out  the  military Reserves.  He  may  even  order  the  armed  forces into   military   action   before   Congress   actually declares  war.  Often  a  President  has  referred  a matter to Congress after the fact. The following examples  of  such  actions  show  the  presidential authority  and  control  of  U.S.  military  forces: In  1801  President  Jefferson  sent  naval squadrons to the Mediterranean and then informed   Congress. In 1845 President Polk deployed the Navy to  the  coast  of  Mexico  to  quell  trouble caused  by  the  annexation  of  Texas.  He asked Congress to declare war on Mexico 5  months  later,  and  Congress  did. In   1862   President   Lincoln   personally assumed  command  of  successful  military operations  against  Confederate  forces  in Norfolk,   Virginia. In  1896  President  McKinley  ordered  the naval   blockade   of   Cuba.   Congress declared war on Spain 3 days later, In  1941  President  Franklin  Roosevelt declared an unlimited national emergency and  ordered  the  U.S.  Navy  to  “sink  on sight”  foreign  submarines  found  in  our “defensive    waters.” In 1962 President Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine   of   Cuba   based   on   Soviet military activity on that island. In 1965 President Johnson ordered naval air   action   against   North   Vietnamese gunboats  and  support  facilities. In 1979 President Carter ordered units of the U.S. Sixth and Seventh Fleets to the Indian Ocean to help in hostage evacuation operations   and   as   deterrents   against Iranian actions. In   1989   President   Bush   directed   U.S. forces  to  execute  a  preplanned  mission (code named Operation Just Cause) in the Republic   of   Panama.   Objectives   were protection  of  American  lives,  restoration of  the  democratic  process,  protection  of the integrity of the Panama Canal treaties, and  apprehension  of  General  Manuel Noriega. In  1991  President  Bush  sent  troops  into Saudi  Arabia  (code  named  Operation Desert   Shield)   to   prevent   Iraq   from extending  aggression  into  Saudi  Arabia. THE  DEPARTMENT  OF DEFENSE (DOD) The  President,  as  the  Commander  in  Chief, heads the military chain of command within the Department  of  Defense.  The  Commander  in  Chief is kept abreast of all matters affecting the ability of   the   Department   of   Defense   to   defend   the United States and its allies. The  offices  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense;  the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and their supporting establishments  (the  Departments  of  the  Army, Navy,  and  Air  Force);  and  various  unified  and specified  commands  make  up  the  DOD. The  Department  of  Defense  is  the  largest government agency in the United States. It spends a  major  portion  of  the  national  budget  and employs  nearly  4  million  people  (military  and civilian). The DOD carries out the military policies of the United States. Its functions, simply stated, are  to  maintain  and  employ  armed  forces  to accomplish  the  following: Support  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the United States against all enemies Protect the United States, its possessions, and areas vital to its interests Advance the policies and interests of the United  States Safeguard   the   internal   security   of   the United  States Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) The   Secretary   of   Defense   (SECDEF)   is   a member of both the President’s Cabinet and the National Security Council. In that capacity, the SECDEF   exercises   “direction,   authority,   and control  over  the  Department  of  Defense.”  The Secretary  of  Defense,  by  virtue  of  an  Executive order,  has  responsibility  for  all  the  President’s 1-4