during surface action. However, they normally use  such  forces  only  as  one  element  in  a coordinated strike by both air and surface units. Commanders  detach  surface  action  groups  in special  situations;  for  example,  to  destroy  isolated or  crippled  enemy  surface  units,  to  conduct  shore bombardment, or for surface reconnaissance missions. Normally, though, aircraft are the principal  agents  for  tactical  reconnaissance.  Air action  usually  takes  place  before  a  surface engagement  or  occurs  during  the  engagement.  An air strike before a surface engagement may surprise the enemy forces to such an extent that the surface action becomes a pursuit of dis- organized enemy forces. It may also slow enemy forces  so  that  the  task  force  or  battle  group  can engage  enemy  forces  with  surface-to-surface  fire or  missiles  outside  the  enemy  surface  missile envelope.  Task  force  or  group  commanders  may also use aircraft for spotting gunfire and ship- launched  missiles.  Figure  1-3  shows  a  surface action  group. AMPHIBIOUS   FORCES Amphibious  operations  conducted  to  establish a  landing  force  on  a  hostile  shore  achieves  several purposes.  First,  they  allow  our  forces  to  pursue further  combat  operations.  Second,  they  allow our forces to obtain a site for an advanced naval or air base. And third, they deny the use of an area or facilities to the enemy. AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE  has  special  signi- ficance  for  every  person  in  the  Navy.  It  integrates nearly  all  types  of  ships,  aircraft,  weapons,  and landing  forces  in  a  concerted  military  effort against  a  hostile  shore.  The  ability  to  conduct amphibious  operations  effectively  is  a  measure  of a  nation’s  competence  in  applying  the  elements of sea power and air power in a coordinated effort. A nation’s competence in applying sea power  and  air  power  in  a  coordinated  effort  serves as a measure of its ability to conduct effective amphibious   operations. The  usefulness  of  the  amphibious  operation stems from the mobility and flexibility of its forces;  that  is,  the  ability  to  concentrate  balanced forces and to strike with great strength at selected points   in   the   hostile   defense   system.   An amphibious  operation  uses  the  element  of  surprise and  capitalizes  upon  enemy  weaknesses.  The  mere threat imposed by the existence of powerful amphibious  forces  may  convince  the  enemy  to spread  out  concentrated  forces.  This  may  result in  expensive  and  wasteful  efforts  by  the  enemy in defending the country’s coastline. Amphibious  assaults  must  be  conducted  in  the face of certain additional and special difficulties. Natural  forces,  such  as  unfavorable  weather,  seas, and  surf,  represent  hazards  not  normally encountered  in  land  warfare.  Ships  encounter many   logistics   problems.   They   must   load thousands  of  troops  and  large  quantities  of material so that they can be unloaded in the proper  sequence.  They  then  must  move  these troops and materials to the objective area and land them on open beaches or landing zones, which may be under enemy fire. All such problems require  special  attention  to  detailed  planning. The  closest  cooperation  and  most  detailed coordination  among  all  forces  taking  part  in  an amphibious  operation  are  essential  to  success.  The forces must be trained together. Each force must have a clear understanding of its mutual obliga- tions,  special  capabilities,  and  problems. Amphibious  striking  forces  normally  include Navy  and  Marine  Corps  forces  but  may  include personnel  from  every  service  of  the  armed  forces. These   forces   are   integrated   into   a   task organization  to  form  a  single  cohesive  amphibious striking force capable of executing its mission with utmost efficiency. The keynote of successful amphibious  operations  is  the  complete  coordina- tion and unity of effort among all the participating elements  of  land,  sea,  and  air  forces.  This coordination and unity achieved successes in the conduct  of  amphibious  operations  during  World War II, the Korean conflict, and the Vietnam conflict. These successes are direct results of the close  relationships  developed  among  our  armed forces. NAVAL WARFARE NAVAL WARFARE is a conflict in which at least  one  of  the  opponents  is  operating  from  the sea with surface ships, submarines, or sea-based aircraft. Naval warfare involves three major areas: SURFACE,  SUBSURFACE,  and  AIR.  Each  of these  areas  has  its  own  operating  characteristics, and each has its own particular strengths and limitations. The art of naval warfare entails a nation’s use of  surface,  submarine,  and  air  forces  in  a  manner that  exploits  the  strengths  and  minimizes  the weaknesses of each. This objective has led to surface, submarine, and air forces operating together  in  mutual  support.  Their  common objective  is  to  gain  advantages  over  the  enemy  by working  together  to  improve  offensive  capabilities 1-9